Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Planning Process

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Planning Process CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is 20 year old tool for environmental management, not living up to its full potential. (Mudge, 1993). This chapter describes the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) planning process as conventionally depicted in subsequent EIA texts and guidelines. EIA characteristics and objectives are first presented because EIA planning process characterisations are interdependent with assumed EIA characteristics and objectives. Following the depictions of EIA characteristics, EIA objectives and the EIA planning process vary greatly from source to source. These variations are more the result of the varying perspectives of different authors than clearly defined schools of thought. Although, there has been a pro- process of evaluation over the past two decades, there also are many instances where elements suggested in earlier works have not been incorporated into most recent portrayals. This overview of the conventional EIA planning process is a point of departure for the modifications and refinements discussed in later chapters of this research. Also, the conventional portrayals of EIA characteristics, EIA objectives and the EIA planning process will be revisited in later chapters, taking account of combined implications. The following are EIA characteristics as commonly depicted in introductory EIA literature and guidelines; As a field of study EIA draws upon many social and natural science disciplines (Jain, Urban and Stacey, 1977). Drawing upon diverse disciplines is necessary to understand the significant aspects of the environment in order to predict how those environmental attributes may change over time with and without a proposed action; Boundaries between, and links to both traditional disciplines and to other transdisciplinary and transprofessional fields such as planning (Lawrence 1992). EIA must transcend individual disciplines if a holistic image of the environment with and without a proposed action(s), is to be presented. Hence, EIA should not be viewed as a transdisciplinary field. EIA consist of structural approaches and set of procedures in order to ensure that environmental factors are considered in planning and decision making (Clark1981a). In this regard EIA is a normative procedure that seeks to identify natural and social environmental norms or ethical standards and to infuse these into planning and decision making. In the definition of Environmental Impact Assessment, the impact element is often prefaced by one or more dimensional distinctions, such as; positive and negative (Mitchell and Takheim 1977; Rau and Wooten 1980); time ( short term, long term, frequency, duration); space (on-site, off-site); direct and indirect, quantitative and qualitative; individual and cumulative; and likelihood of occurrence (Rau and Wooten 1980). While the assessment component of EIA includes analysis synthesis and management- Analysis involves data collection and compilation, the identification of likely environmental conditions and interactions among environmental conditions and systems (Mm 1979; Munro et. al 1986; Amour 1990; Erickson 1994) und the description, measurement and prediction of likely effects and interactions among effects. Synthesis includes the interpretation of the significance of affects and interactions among them (Munn 1979; CEARC l988b) and the aggregation and evaluation of individual and cumulative effects (Cumulative Environmental Assessment CEA) both with and without mitigation (Westman 1985; Lang and Annour 1981; Armour 1990; Erickscm 1 994; Shoanaka 1994). Management includes mitigation (Jain, Urban and Stacey 1977) compensation and local benefits (Amour 1990), the management of residual impacts (CEARC 1988b), monitoring and contingency measures, and communications/ consultation activities (CEARC 1988b). In summary, EIA is a process that identifies, predicts, evaluates and manages the potential (or real) impacts of proposed (or existing) human activities on both the human and natural environment. The EIA planning process includes analysis, synthesis, management, communications and consultation activities. The consequences of such activities and their alternatives will result in specific impacts. Underlying EIA practice are usually implicating application assumptions. Formal or informal institutional mechanisms are, for example, anticipated to be in place to help to compel, or at least facilitate public or private proponents to initiate and complete an EIA planning process and the necessary documentation, as a perquisite to project approval. Along with perquisite methods it is expected that a systematic planning process can be devised or adapted for analysing and synthesizing the appropriate data and for involving relevant agencies and the public. Further assumed that: there is appropriate expertise to tackle the necessary technical work and to review whatever the outcomes of the planning process; there is a basis for choosing among alternative plans and for deciding if an undertaking should or should not proceed; the people who make the decision will rationally use the information provided to guide their actions; the requirements for approvals can be enforced and the impacts managed if unforeseen impacts occur; the contingency measures can be instituted. These application assumptions have been increasingly challenged in the EIA literature and in decision of courts and hearing panels and boards. The expectation that knowledge and expertise are sufficient may be especially dubious in situations characterised by emerging technologies, poorly understood environments and complex inter relationships within and among proposed actions and components of the environment. The extension of EIA from the conceptual to the applied pre-supposes that EIA must also be a transprofessional field of practice, EIA comprises of a core body of knowledge, skills and methods. Social and natural sciences provide the initial knowledge base- EIA seeks to integrate and, thereby transcend, the inputs and insights of a range of professions with expertise m the proposed action, the environment and their interactions, within a public policy setting. Frameworks, procedures and methods have been formulated and refined through practice, which over the years, has resulted in the emergence of EIA as a recognized area of expertise. EIA is a planning tool (Bisset 1983; Clark l9Ã »3a; Smith 1993). It is a form of applied policy analysis or more specifically, a form of resource management and environmental planning (Smith 1993). Consequently, the formulations and applications of environmental planning processes is one aspect of EIA. It, therefore, tends to be assumed that the EIA planning process should be anticipatory (prior to decision-making), systematic or orderly and rational. The results and conclusions from the EIA planning process should also be documented, generally in the form of an EIA report or statement. EIA is a generic planning process intended to contribute environmental information to decision-making. It provides a regulatory basis for forcing the explicit consideration of environment concerns by public and private decision makers. As such EIA forms a part of the institutional fabric through legislation, public policy or administrative procedures. Institutionalisation requires mechanisms to prepare, review and document the process, to coordinate inter-agency and private/public interactions, to adjudicate disputes and to monitor and enforce compliance. This dissertation therefore takes up this theme to investigate the effectiveness of EIA in the Skye Bridge project by considering the planning process and by using literature review as a means of analysis and research. CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW On July 3, 1988, European Union (EU) Directive 85/337/EEC (Directive) came into force and as a result, Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) became a part of the EUs environmental protection plans. The Directive requires that before consent is given for the development of certain public and private projects that are likely to have significant effects on the environment, an assessment of those effects must be compiled and considered by the developer and the authority in charge of approving the projects. By asking decision-making authorities to ponder likely environmental harm before the harm occurs, the Directive promotes a policy of preventing environmental harm. The comprehensive effectiveness of mandating pre-consent environmental impact assessment is undercut, however, because the Directive textually exempts national defense projects from its process. This study suggests that the European Union could and should include national defense projects in its EIA law. Part I of this Chapt er will provide a summarized, chronological evolution of environmental policy in the European Union. Part II will give a description and history of EIA law, including that of the United States, so as to provide a comparative and contrasting point of reference. Part III will propose a way by which the European Union can more fully live up to the preventative approach that it has espoused for environmental protection by requiring environmental impact assessments for national defense projects. This Chapter concludes that the inclusion of national defense projects in the EUs EIA law would broaden the scope and effectiveness of EIA law and environmental protection generally. 2.1. HISTORICAL AND LEGAL DEVELOPMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT LAW 2.1.1. The Evolution of Environmental Policy in the EU The 1957 Treaty of Rome (Treaty), which established the European Economic Community, focused on the creation of a common-trade zone. Accordingly, the Treaty failed to make any explicit statements regarding policies for environmental protection. In fact, until 1987, all EU environmental protection legislation was introduced via the general language of one or both of two Treaty articles that only implicitly recognized EU authority over environmental issues in Member States. Article 100 of the Treaty calls for the harmonization of laws affecting the common market in Member States. Article 235 authorizes measures that prove necessary to attain one of the objectives of the Community absent a specific delegation of authority by the Treaty. Although the Articles make no explicit reference to environmental issues, they have been used as authority for certain environmental regulations. For example, Article 100s allusion to issues affectin g the common market was used as the authority to develop legislation that regulated product and industry standards across the EU. On the heels of the increased environmental awareness that swept the globe in the late 1960s, the European Community initiated the European Community Action Programmes on the Environment. The first of these five-year programmes, covering the years from 1973 to 1977, established principles and priorities for future environmental policies. The second five-year programme (1977-1981) established a list of eleven principles and actions to be taken in order to move closer to the goal of environmental protection. The list included the decision-making tool of environmental impact assessment. The first two Action Programmes had a common theme of protecting human health and the environment by controlling pollution problems. The third five-year Programme (1982-1986) solidly shifted the emphasis of environmental policy from one of pollution control to one of prevention and integration of environmental issues into other European Community policies. Not surprisingly, it was during the era of the S econd and Third Action Programmes when Directive 85/337/EEC, an inherently preventative and integrating piece of legislation, was first proposed and then accepted. The Fourth Action Programme (1987-1992) continued the trend of prevention but proceeded further beyond its predecessors by stressing the importance of using stringent environmental standards in regulating the activities of Member States. The evolution of environmental policy in the EU took a crucial step on July 1, 1987 when, in conjunction with the adoption of the Fourth Action Programme, the Community adopted the Single European Act. The Act, which consisted of amendments to the Treaty of Rome, contained articles that specifically affected environmental policy. Article 100A recognized the relationship between promotion of the common market and protection of the environment by authorizing the EU to adopt environmental legislation on the basis that such issues affect the marketplace. Article 130R lays out the objectives of future Community action relating to the environment by formalizing the principles of prevention, subsidiarity, polluter pays, and most importantly, integration. Article 130T reconfirms that individual Member States may enact environmental legislation that is more stringent than, but is compatible with, that of the Community. The evolution of environmental policy in the EU from the 1957 Treaty of Rome through the various Action Programmes and to the Single European Act exemplifies the European Communitys commitment to a preventative approach to environmental protection. EIA law stands as a hallmark of that preventative approach. The EUs commitment to the comprehensive prevention of environmental degradation is tested, however, by the limitations of its own EIA law. 2.1.2. Environmental Impact Assessment Law: A Description and Comparative Study 2.1.2.1. EIA: A General Overview The essential structure of EIA law is common to all the nations that use it. Generally, EIA law is a process intended to minimize or prevent environmental damage that is usually associated with the construction and operation of certain development projects. Usually in the form of legislation, regulations and/or administrative processes, EIA law requires that certain development projects, while still in a planning stage, be analyzed in terms of their potential adverse impacts on the environment. Developers and/or governmental bodies, depending on the particularities of the EIA law in question, must conduct an analysis, or assessment, of the environmental effects of certain projects. The public authority responsible for granting or denying consent to the project is asked to take into account the results of the assessment. Again, depending on the particularities of the EIA law in question, provisions are made for public disclosure of the assessments, as well as for public involvement in the authoritys decision-making process. The EIA process plays four important roles in protecting the environment. First, EIA law gives concrete, practical effect to environmental policy language that is often broad, general and otherwise absent of specific mandates. The U.S. Congress, in formulating its declarations of environmental policy, included EIA so as to insure that the policies enunciated . . . are implemented. EIA helps to insure proper implementation of policies by requiring the formulation and submission of written assessment reports, demonstrating an affirmative compliance with the environmental concerns outlined in policy language. A second role for EIA is to provide an analytical decision-making tool that institutionalizes foresight. It asks the decision-making authority to look beyond the moment and to incorporate into its decision the possible irreversible future effects a project may have on the environment. Third, to the extent that EIA affirmatively asks developers and decision-makers to account for the social and economic costs resulting from their actions, EIA forces the internalization of those costs and consequences that might otherwise go unaccounted for. The final role that EIA plays is as a public-awareness measure. Most EIA processes allow for public disclosure of development plans, as well as for public participation in the decision-making process. In the words of Professor Nicholas Robinson, EIA facilitates democratic decision making and consensus building regarding new development. For EIA to incorporate environmental norms into decision making, it must address both environmental ethics and values and human ethics, values, perceptions, beliefs and attitudes. It is an objective procedure for identifying, measuring and predicting environmental attributes and changes brought about by existing or proposed actions, but is subjective in the interpretation, aggregation and management of those changes. Although driven by an environmental ethic, the links between EIA and ethical theory in general and environmental ethics in particular, have been tenuous at best. The tendency has been to assume that concepts and methods developed to predict and explain environmental change provide a sufficient knowledge base. The practice of EIA involves, usually implicit assumptions regarding the known environment, environmental impacts and environmental norms. It is, for example, generally assumed that aspects of the environment and their inter- relationships can be identified, described or measured and monitored; changes, with or without a proposed action can be predicted to the extent that cause-effect relationships can be established; stakeholders values can be determined; measures of impact magnitude and importance can be combined; individual and cumulative environmental consequences can be interpreted, aggregated and managed; end issues of probability of uncertainty can be managed sufficiently to decide whether a proposed action should proceed and, if so, then, in what fashion. These knowledge assumptions are questionable, especially in the subjective realm of conflicting values, perceptions and human behaviour. The primary focus of EIA was initially on the physical and natural environment and, to a lesser extent, on the socio economic consequences of physical and natural environmental changes. The environmental aspect of EIA now generally embraces both natural (physical, biological and ecological) and human (human health and well being, social, cultural, economic built) environmental components and systems (Wiesner, 1995) and their inter relationships (Jain, Urban and Stacey, 1977; Estrin and Swaigen, 1978; CEARC, 1988b). There are many opinions regarding whether social impact assessment (SIA) or socio-economic impact assessment is or should be a sub-field of EIA (Morris and Therive1, 1995). A broad definition of the environmental EIA facilitates a more comprehensive approach to environmental management but it leaves open the possibility that certain elements of the environment will not receive pertinent attention. The question of how best to integrate social, ecological and economic data and perspectives remains unresolved. Human actions alter the environment (Jain, Urban and Stacey 1977; Mitchell and Turkheim 1977). In EIA, the term impact generally refers to the accepted environmental consequences (Meredith 1991) of a proposed action or set of actions (Rau and Wooten 1980) and less frequently to the actual consequences of an existing activity. Distinctions also are often drawn between changes or effects (measures of magnitude) and impacts (measures of magnitude in combination with measures of importance), between alternations of environmental conditions or the creation of a new set of environmental conditions, and between environmental conditions changes caused or ind uced by actions (Rau and Wooten 1980). Although the traditional focus of EIA has been capital projects, EIA requirements are increasingly applied to legislative proposals, policies, programs, technologies, regulations and operational procedures (Munn 1979; Estrin and Swaigen 1978; CEARC 1988b). The expectation that the conceptual basis for EIA largely developed at a project level can be readily extended and applied to policies, programs and technologies is questionable. At the policy and program level the range of inter related choices tends to multiply, impacts tend to be more generic and less amenable to precise prediction and EIA overlaps with policy and program evaluation, planning and environmental and resource management. A distinction is sometimes drawn between project level EIA und the strategic environmental assessment (SEA) of policies, plans and programs (Sadler 1995). Risk assessment, technology assessment and environmental health impact assessment are viewed as either subfields within EIA (Sadler 1995) or as distinct fields that partially overlap with EIA in most cases EIA applies to the actions of both public and private proponents (Meredith 1991; Mitchell and Tuclcheh 1977). Alternative methods of achieving a proposed end and of managing the impacts associated with a partial choice are also usually considered in an EIA planning process. 2.1.2.2. A Comparative Study: The United States Experience with EIA The significant history of EIA law began with the passage in the United States of the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) of 1969. NEPA was brought about as an instrument of policy and planning (Roberts, 1984a). Among NEPAs eloquent but broad declarations of environmental policy is a brief section mandating EIA law for certain projects, thus providing a set of teeth with which to enforce the statutes policies. Section 102(2) of the Act requires all federal agencies to prepare and include an environmental impact statement (EIS) with every recommendation or proposal for major Federal actions significantly affecting the quality of the human environment. The importance and weight of this requirement, as well as the problems inherent in defining its triggering terms, are demonstrated by the fact that the EIS clause has spawned nearly all case law brought under NEPA. Much of NEPA case law has dealt with the issue of w hether projects involving national defense and national security are subject to compliance with Section 102(2), and judicial review of such compliance. The environmental, public-awareness and military interests at stake in these cases are reflected by two questions. First, will compliance and judicial review compromise the confidentiality of matters regarding national security? Second, will compliance and judicial review compromise the ability of the military to proceed with projects, which while detrimental to the environment, are crucial to the defense of the country? In answering these questions, it is important to note that NEPA calls for EISs from all agencies of the Federal Government; the statute does not provide a textual exception for national defense or security projects. Despite the clear language of the statute, however, U.S. courts have struggled with the issue and are currently responding in a manner that runs counter to the language and true intent of NEPA. Most court decisions find that NEPA-based claims against projects involving national defense interests are justifiable. Early cases, however, were ambiguous in answering questions of whether such projects must comply with NEPA requirements and whether EISs for such projects are subject to judicial review of their legal sufficiency. For instance, in the early case of McQueary v. Laird, the Tenth Circuit Court of Appeals dealt with a NEPA challenge to a military project by claiming lack of jurisdiction. In another early case, Citizens for Reid State Park v. Laird, the U.S. District Court for the Southern District of Maine found that NEPA applies to all federal agencies, including the Department of Defense. The Court in Citizens for Reid State Park refused to require an EIS for the Navy project in question, however, because it found that the plaintiff citizens group had failed to prove that the Navy plans constituted a major project significantly affecting the environment. Later court d ecisions often allowed national defense projects to proceed without an EIS or judicial review of an EIS, not because the courts believed that such projects did not have to comply with NEPA, but merely because the courts found that major federal action or significant effects on the environmentrequirements necessary to trigger NEPA were absent. In cases where major federal actions having significant effects on the environment were found to exist, compliance with NEPA was required despite national security interests. In Committee for Nuclear Responsibility, Inc. v. Schlesinger, for example, the Supreme Court refused to issue an injunction for violation of NEPA, but the Courts rushed decision upheld a Court of Appeals finding that the Atomic Energy Commission did have a judicially reviewable duty to comply with NEPA requirements in spite of national security considerations. In Progressive Animal Welfare Society v. Department of Navy, the Western District Court of Appeals of Washington found that the Navys plan to use dolphins in a military project was a major federal action with significant environmental impact; accordingly, a NEPA EIS was required for the project. Finally, in Concerned about Trident v. Rumsfeld, the Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia found that the Navys plans for a submarine support facility requ ired compliance with NEPA to the fullest extent possible. The court found that the Navys own internal environmental impact statement was insufficient to fulfill the requirements of NEPA. In making its decision, the court, citing judicial precedent as well as NEPAs lack of a textual military exception, rejected the Navys argument that NEPA could not possibly apply to strategic military decisions. The court stated that the Navys plans were subject to NEPA requirements despite the projects serious national security implications. In 1981, the Supreme Court again addressed the issue of the militarys compliance with NEPAs EIA mandate. In Weinberger v. Catholic Action of Hawaii, the Court refused judicial review of the Department of Defenses compliance with NEPA in a matter of national security. The dispute began with the Navys plan to construct a weapons and ammunition holding facility capable of storing nuclear weapons in Ohau, Hawaii. The Navys internal assessment concluded that the fac ility would not have significant impact on the environment and as such, a NEPA EIS was unnecessary. The Navys assessment, however, failed to include an analysis of the facilitys impact on the environment should nuclear weapons actually be stored at the site. The district court that first reviewed the case found that the Navy had complied with NEPA to the fullest extent possible. The Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals reversed the decision of the district court, arguing that an EIS was necessary and feasible since it would not necessarily release confidential matters. Important to the court was the fact that the Navy had already made the nuclear capabilities of the facility public knowledge. The court went on to suggest a hypothetical approach to writing EISs that would protect national security, environmental concerns, and public disclosure interests. Judge Merrill wrote that under this hypothetical approach, the Navys EIS must evaluate the hypothetical consequences of storing nuclear weapons at the site but it need not imply that a decision to actually store nuclear weapons had been made. The court argued that since the public was already aware of the capability of the facility to store nuclear weapons, a hypothetical EIS that discussed the impact of such storage, but not whether it would actually occur, would not reveal anything the public did not already know . Further, it would allow the Navy and the decision-making authority to consider the true and potential costs and consequences of proceeding with the project. Finally, the Court stated that a hypothetical EIS would assure the public that the decision-making process had fully accounted for the projects externalities and consequences. On review, the Supreme Court reversed the Court of Appeals creative approach to balancing the interests at stake. The Court, discrediting the Ninth Circuits notion of a hypothetical EIS, refused to mandate a NEPA EIS because it believed that doing so would reveal confidential matters of national security. In the majority opinion, Justice Rehnquist outlined the current status of the law regarding military compliance with EIA law in the United States. He wrote that public policies favoring the protection of confidential information regarding national security ultimately forbids judicial scrutiny of whether or not the Navy has complied with NEPA to the fullest extent possible.' Justice Blackmun, who concurred with the judgment of the Court, was joined by Justice Brennan in stressing that although the Defense Department may disseminate EISs in a manner that protects confidential matters, it is still bound by the obligations of NEPA. 2.1.2.3. A Comparative Study: The European Unions Experience with EIA Sixteen years after NEPA took effect in the United States and after five years of consideration in the European Union, Environmental Impact Assessment law was officially incorporated into the statutory framework of the EU on June 27, 1985. Directive 85/337 mandates EIA for certain projects such as those involving crude-oil refineries, thermal and nuclear power stations, motorway construction and dangerous waste landfills. It also requires EIA to be performed in conjunction with those other projects that Member States find have a significant effect on the environment due to the projects particular characteristics. The specific legal authority for the Directive is derived from Articles 100 and 235 of the EEC Treaty. The Directive also cites to the first three Action Programmes for their policies of preventing environmental harms at the source rather then trying to counteract environmental degradation once it occurs. The procedure called for by the Directive identifies, describes and analyzes the effects a development project may have on humans, fauna, flora, soil, water, air, climate, landscape, welfare and cultural heritage. The EIA must contain a description of the project in question, an outline of the main alternatives to the project, the reason for choosing the proposed plans, a description of the significant effects the project will have on the environment, and a description of the measures that must be taken to avoid, reduce or compensate for those effects. Because developers have the best knowledge of the nature of their proposal, they have the responsibility of gathering the information and compiling the EIA. The decision-making authorities who have the power of giving consent to the developers plans have the responsibility of setting standards for approval or disapproval and ensuring that the developers EIA complies with the law. Further, they are obligated, by statute, to incorporate the EIA into their decision-making process. Also, Article 10 of the Directive states that the authorities must respect existing regulations and practices regarding industrial and commercial secrecy. Finally, the Directive envisions an active role for the public. In addition to supplying the decision-makers with information regarding the impact a project will have on the local environment, the public may have an opportunity to suggest alternatives and to pursue judicial action in order to request a review of consent. Further particularities of public participation and involvement are to be determined by the individual Member States. 2.1.2.4. The National Defense Project Exception to Directive 85/337/EEC The effectiveness of the Directive in preventing environmental harms is undercut by the exception it gives to national defense projects. It is reasonable to infer that this exception reflects two assumptions. The first assumption, explicitly mentioned in the Directive, is that national legislative processes will ensure that defense projects comply with the Directive. No rationale is provided for this assumption except for the implied reasoning that national legislators share the concerns of the Directive and are able to guide national legislation accordingly. The second assumption appears to be that the confidentiality of Member States national security matters would be compro

Imagination, Perception and the Experience of Nature in Literature Essa

Imagination, Perception and the Experience of Nature in Literature Works Cited Missing I am a psychology student with an English minor. While the combination seems odd at first glance, the two studies actually compliment each other quite nicely. I have always been fascinated by the way in which writing can reflect the inner workings of an author's mind, by the way it effects the reader in such a profound, defamiliarizing way, as well as by the way that it can be used to explore the many facets of human nature in a much more effective way than any research study. Because of this thought process I have been particularly interested in several of the poets that we have looked at and their exploration of the effects of the forces of imagination and sensual perception on their perception of nature. The debate over how much of our personal experience is based upon what we see and hear and how much is based on what we feel and believe is long standing and crosses many fields of study, psychology being only one of them. William Wordsworth's "Tintern Abbey", Percy Shelley's "Mon t Blanc" and to an extent Samuel Coleridge's "Chamouny: the Hour Before Sunrise" all represent different stances on the issue and therefore aid the reader in exploring the effects of perception and of imagination on experience. In Wordsworth's "Tintern Abbey", the poet explores the experience of nature as collaboration between imagination and sensual perception. He reflects on how the Wye valley has existed for him in his imagination in the years since he first visited the valley, and how now that he has returned to the same site "with gleams of half-extinguished thought, / With many recognitions dim and faint / And somewhat of a sad perplexity, / The p... ... nature is affected by their attitudes and the degree to which their attitudes are in place because of their experiences with nature. Wordsworth seems to hold back from committing himself to any one view of the relationship between experience and attitude, sensual perception and imagination. He seems to best appreciate the two way street that the aspects of unified perception operate on. While there can be no conclusions drawn as to the degree to which our experience of anything is based upon sensual perception or upon our imagination, I think that it is safe to say that our unified perception of the world around us is based upon interplay between the two. Exploration of the nature of experience by the poets discussed in the previous paragraphs further highlights the relationship between psychology and literature and helps to explain my fascination with both. Imagination, Perception and the Experience of Nature in Literature Essa Imagination, Perception and the Experience of Nature in Literature Works Cited Missing I am a psychology student with an English minor. While the combination seems odd at first glance, the two studies actually compliment each other quite nicely. I have always been fascinated by the way in which writing can reflect the inner workings of an author's mind, by the way it effects the reader in such a profound, defamiliarizing way, as well as by the way that it can be used to explore the many facets of human nature in a much more effective way than any research study. Because of this thought process I have been particularly interested in several of the poets that we have looked at and their exploration of the effects of the forces of imagination and sensual perception on their perception of nature. The debate over how much of our personal experience is based upon what we see and hear and how much is based on what we feel and believe is long standing and crosses many fields of study, psychology being only one of them. William Wordsworth's "Tintern Abbey", Percy Shelley's "Mon t Blanc" and to an extent Samuel Coleridge's "Chamouny: the Hour Before Sunrise" all represent different stances on the issue and therefore aid the reader in exploring the effects of perception and of imagination on experience. In Wordsworth's "Tintern Abbey", the poet explores the experience of nature as collaboration between imagination and sensual perception. He reflects on how the Wye valley has existed for him in his imagination in the years since he first visited the valley, and how now that he has returned to the same site "with gleams of half-extinguished thought, / With many recognitions dim and faint / And somewhat of a sad perplexity, / The p... ... nature is affected by their attitudes and the degree to which their attitudes are in place because of their experiences with nature. Wordsworth seems to hold back from committing himself to any one view of the relationship between experience and attitude, sensual perception and imagination. He seems to best appreciate the two way street that the aspects of unified perception operate on. While there can be no conclusions drawn as to the degree to which our experience of anything is based upon sensual perception or upon our imagination, I think that it is safe to say that our unified perception of the world around us is based upon interplay between the two. Exploration of the nature of experience by the poets discussed in the previous paragraphs further highlights the relationship between psychology and literature and helps to explain my fascination with both.

The Screwtape Letters and Subjective Relativism

The Screwtape letters was written by C. S. Lewis in 1942. In this book, C. S. Lewis used 31 letters from a senior devil, Screwtape, to his nephew to describe how to corrupt a person’s soul. The most important idea is that when lower the standard of self-regulation step by step with subjective relativism, the self-regulation will be too low without any awareness, which means the victim does not even know his spirit was corrupted and he always think what he did is right. The key point is that subjective relativism, view that an action is morally right if a person approves of it, would be dangerous.When comparing this theory with the management environment in workplace, the situations are surprisingly similar. If a manager controls a big company or organization with subjective relativism-â€Å"all depends on the situation with settings†-the standard of the company or organization would be lowed step by step and finally out of control. As a result, managers don’t lik e a relativism management environment; they always use universalism or even absolutism to manage the systems. Subjective relativism is considered dangerous for a management system, and other people’s money, anonymity, and subjective relativism is a deadly combination.However, subjective relativism is not the core reason that makes the management system fail. Sometimes, it can benefit the management system. A New Examination of boiling frogs: we know where we are The boiling frog is a wide known story which is also very similar with the story of Screwtape. When putting a frog in a pot with boiling water in it, the frog will jump out of the pot immediately. However, when it was put in a pot of cold water and the pot was slowly heated, the frog would be boiled alive and die in the pot.However, this story is proved not true recently. According to Fast Company (2006), J. Debra Hofman did a new examination of the boiling frogs. â€Å"We placed Frog A into a pot of cold water and a pplied moderate heat. At 4. 20 seconds, it safely exited the pot with a leap of 24 centimeters. We then placed Frog B into a pot of lukewarm water and applied moderate heat. At 1. 57 seconds, it safely exited the pot with a leap of 57 centimeters. † Hofman commented, â€Å"The change myth assumes a very narrow view of people.If frogs can do it, people definitely can. † Just like the story of boiling frogs, the system doesn’t really out of control with subjective relativism. Relativism holds that there are no absolute moral principles, but the rules that truly guide them in each situation are to be â€Å"determined by their relation to something else: the willing of customs or culture of the group, or the desires of the workmates. † Gibb, J. R. (1991). Subjectivism means that â€Å"the sole source of knowledge or authority is in the perception of the individual. (Lisa Newton, 1995) When combining subjectivism and relativism, each person is his/her own auth ority in the business life, and is the source of his/her own guide. On this reasoning, each person has the right to decide on all matters of what is right and wrong. Subjective relativism can only lead people to do as they want, and the rules which guide them is depends on the environment, which means the relationships with others around them are the core reason why they change. For instance, in the story of Screwtape letters, the true way of corrupting a person’s soul is the so called â€Å"influence of others†, not subjective relativism.Self-awareness can’t be lowed, what is changing is relationship with others. According to subjective relativism, what's right for the employees may not be necessarily right for the company. However, the feeling of right or wrong is directly linked to the feeling of right or wrong from the group he/she lived in. As a result, when a manager is able to affect the employees by delivering his/her idea and value to the workplace (a g roup where employees are in), subjective relativism can benefit the company. Universalism vs.Relativism: Small business is perfectly fitful for relativism system Another quite different judgment system is universalism. Universalism and relativism are always compared in a national view point. â€Å"Universalism holds that more â€Å"primitive† cultures will eventually evolve to have the same system of law and rights as Western cultures. Cultural relativists hold an opposite, but similarly rigid viewpoint, that a traditional culture is unchangeable. In universalism, an individual is a social unit, possessing inalienable rights, and driven by the pursuit of self-interest.In the cultural relativist model, a community is the basic social unit. Concepts such as individualism, freedom of choice, and equality are absent. It is recognized that the community always comes first. †(Clemens N. Nathan, 2009) however, when talking about business systems, these concepts are a little b it different. Universalism refers to a system with â€Å"common rules with similar settings†, which means the system has the exactly same rules for all the employees. Looking at the top 100 multinational corporations, they are all using universalism. Universalism is needed today more than ever, especially in multinational corporations. â€Å"(David C. Wyld, 2011) As the world is becoming a smaller place because of globalization and Internet, universalism makes more sense in dealing with multinational issues. It can help the company to develop not only the standard of work environment, but also the reputation of the corporations. However, when focus on the most rapidly developing type of companies, small businesses, universalism seems too general and unfriendly to the employees. Even though subjective relativism has great problems and has a potential for abuse the employees, universalism in its current state is not the ideal solution† Wole Soyinka (2008). Subjective Rel ativism can help the employees to be more interested in the work and maximize the innovation of them. Besides, managers are able to control the company since it just have relatively small amount of employees that they won’t be abused. Subjective Relativism in New Economy The new economy is  commonly  believed to start from the late 1990s, as computer and Internet was developing worldwide. Companies in the new economy are heavily involved in the  internet and biotech industries, but the ripple effects of new technologies has spread out to  all other industries as well†(Investopedia,2012) The networked organizations need a different kind of control. Employees are highly empowered. They can get access to as many works and customers as they can. Besides, employees are highly educated today, sometime they have really good ideas about what companies should do to improve. In this way, managers should be more careful when controlling the management system, and common ru les with similar settings are not enough.Subjective relativism is more powerful in encouraging employees. The system gives the employees to be able to choose what they think is right to do, and the rules are relatively different but fit for each employee. â€Å"There is no logical connection between what you have a right to do and the right thing to do; but there is a psychological temptation to move from one to the other. Let's say that again: In logic, there is no connection between â€Å"You have the right to think what you like,† and â€Å"Anything you happen to like to think is right. You have the right, after all, to contradict yourself; you have all the right in the world to think that â€Å"2+2=5. † That doesn't make it correct. But psychologically, once you have told me that no one has the right to correct me when I claim certain sorts of opinions; you certainly seem to have told me that any such opinions are right, or at least as right as opinions can be. à ¢â‚¬  As Lisa Newton (1998) said, with subjective relativism, empowered employees are able to show their opinions and discuss those opinions together with out shame. Meanwhile, managers can communicate with his group much better and active.However, a big concern is that subjective relativism really has a potential for abuse the employees, so it would be a big challenge for managers to use this method. One suggestion is to combine the subjective relativism with universalism. That is, using the universalism in the company or corporation, but authorizes some division managers to use subjective relativism among the most excellent groups. In this way, companies can not only gain the benefit from universalism system, but also maximize the efficiency of the most excellent employees. References David C.Wyld(2011) Southeastern Louisiana University in Philosophy, March 17, 2011,Rethieved from: http://socyberty. com/philosophy/the-top-10-things-you-need-to-know-about-ethical-universalism-an-a nalysis-of-how-what-is-right-and-wrong-transcends-most-cultures-societies-and-religions/#ixzz2BNEPJbOP Fast Company (2006) Next Time, What Say We Boil a Consultant†. Fast Company Issue 01. October 1995. Retrieved from http://www. fastcompany. com/26455/next-time-what-say-we-boil-consultant Gibb, J. R. (1991) Trust: A New Vision of Human, Relationships for Business, Family and Personal Living. North Hollywood, CA: Newcastle Publishing Company. 991. Investopedia (2012) New Economy. Buzz Word-economy. Retrieved from: http://www. investopedia. com/terms/n/neweconomy. asp#ixzz2BMsc3J3c Lisa Newton (1998a) Subjective Relativism as a Challenge to Ethics. Doing Good and Avoiding Evil Part I. Principles and Reasoning Lisa Newton (1998b) Moral Commitments and the Discipline of Ethics. Doing Good and Avoiding Evil Part I. Principles and Reasoning Neumann Nathan (2009) the Changing Face of Religion and Human Rights by Clemens Wole Soyinka(2008) â€Å"The AVOIDABLE TRAP of CULTURAL RELATI VISM†, on the occasion of the second edition of the Geneva

Don Giovanni Analysis - 886 Words

Jason Dang Professor Heywood MUSC 131 29 October 2017 W.A. Mozart - Don Giovanni Mozart’s Don Giovanni is an operatic masterpiece that is full of classical and legendary tension that still exists today. The music conveys and describes important principles of human personality and character (Ford 9). Don Giovanni is one of the best pieces by Mozart, and it is still a masterpiece in the lyric theater. It was composed in 1787 by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. Don Giovanni was produced during the classical period; intellectually the era is also known as the Age of enlightenment (Fisher 14). During the period, European thinkers embraced the idea of social justice and the value of ordinary individuals. They also believed in the power of individual†¦show more content†¦Mozart first appeared in public in 1761 at the university theatre. He was among dancers in a school drama known as Sigismundus Hungariae Rex (Sadie 22). Another factor that influenced Mozart’s professional life is his travel to Vienna. During their visits, his father was able to ensure t hat they performed before the royal and imperial family at the Viennese court (Sadie 23). He understood that these would give Mozart the attention he needed to secure his future patronage. Moreover, the family traveled to Paris and other places which helped in influencing his career (Sadie 33). Mozart used the opportunity to present themes in Don Giovanni, in which common man fought for his rights against the totalitarianism and harassment of his noble master. Don Giovanni highlights powerful and uncontrollable unreasonable forces of humanity. Also, it represents a paradoxical world which can be seen as a blessing or a curse (Fisher 19). The theme is important to the production of Don Giovanni as it presented the real sociopolitical events that were taking place in Europe. Mozart was keen to ensure that people understood what was taking place in the society. In turn, Mozart’s Don Giovanni belonged to the classical era. One important aspect of music style of classical period is that it focused on clarity (Fisher 127). Also, stylistically the music emphasized on precision as well as rigid structural methods. During that period individuals had strongShow MoreRelatedCosà ¬ Fan Tutte Essay1527 Words   |  7 Pagestranslated as â€Å"Women are all alike, or The School of Lovers.† Being named as such, the principal theme of this opera is the fickleness and infidelity of women. 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